Introduction to Reverse Osmosis Technology
Reverse Osmosis (RO) is a membrane-based separation technology that utilizes pressure as the driving force to remove dissolved solids, ions, and other impurities from water. By applying pressure greater than the osmotic pressure of the feed water, water molecules are forced through a semi-permeable membrane, while contaminants are rejected and concentrated in the brine stream. This process effectively reduces salinity, hardness, organic matter, and microorganisms, producing high-purity permeate water.
RO systems are widely used in seawater and brackish water desalination, industrial wastewater reuse, potable water purification, and various industrial processes requiring high-quality water. The performance and efficiency of RO depend on factors such as membrane material, feed water quality, operating pressure, and system design.
Under equilibrium conditions, the height difference between the two compartments corresponds to the osmotic pressure difference (typically denoted as π) of the solution at equilibrium concentration. Osmotic pressure is a function of the type and concentration of solutes in the solution. Generally, for every 100 ppm of total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration, the osmotic pressure π ranges from 0.04 to 0.075 bar.
π = nRT = MM RT
V
n = the amount of solute in moles
R = the ideal gas constant
T = temperature in Kelvin
V = the volume of the solution
MM = the molar mass of the solute
For example:
A brackish water solution with a TDS of 1,500 ppm has an osmotic pressure of approximately 1.02 bar;
A seawater solution with a TDS of 32,000 ppm has an osmotic pressure of approximately 21.8 bar.
Osmosis | Equilibrium | Reverse Osmosis
Natural Osmosis
Low Solute Concentration → High Solute Concentration
Semi-permeable Membrane
External Applied Pressure
Reverse Osmosis (RO) refers to the process where water flows in the opposite direction of natural osmosis—from a concentrated solution to a diluted one. This process must be driven by externally applied pressure. The reverse flow of water is hindered by three main factors: the osmotic pressure on both sides of the semi-permeable membrane, the internal resistance of the membrane itself, and the resistance caused by fouling on the membrane surface and within its pores during operation. Therefore, the pressure applied in reverse osmosis must significantly exceed the osmotic pressure difference of the solution.
For example:
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In brackish water RO systems, the operating pressure is typically set at 15.5 bar (or higher), while the osmotic pressure difference of a 2,000 ppm brackish water solution is less than 2 bar.
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For seawater with an osmotic pressure difference of approximately 22 bar (at 32,000 ppm), the applied operating pressure is usually around 55 bar.
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1.2 Reverse Osmosis Membranes
The reverse osmosis system relies on reverse osmosis membranes (i.e., the semi-permeable membranes mentioned above) to achieve separation between solvents and solutes. These membranes allow the passage of solvents while rejecting other solutes. Currently, most reverse osmosis membranes feature a multi-layer composite polymer structure with polyamide as the separation layer. These membranes deliver excellent separation performance and long-term durability under conventional feed water conditions.
1.3 Key Performance Parameters
1. Recovery Rate
The recovery rate refers to the percentage of feed water that is converted into permeate water. For example, a recovery rate of 75% means that for every 100 m³/d of feed water, the permeate water output is 75 m³/d.
- For a single industrial reverse osmosis membrane element, the recovery rate in product performance testing typically ranges from 8% to 15%. For a full-scale reverse osmosis water treatment system, the recovery rate varies between 40% and 90%, depending on factors such as feed water characteristics (e.g., salt concentration, contaminants), system configuration, and operational conditions.
- 2. Rejection Rate
The rejection rate defines the percentage of a specific solute retained by the reverse osmosis membrane after filtration relative to its concentration in the feed water.
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Valence of Solutes: Solutes with higher valence exhibit higher rejection rates. For example, Ca²⁺ has a higher rejection rate than Na⁺.
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Degree of Hydration: Ions with larger hydrated sizes achieve higher rejection rates. For instance, chloride ions (Cl⁻) are rejected more effectively than nitrate ions (NO³⁻).
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Molecular Weight: Generally, solutes with higher molecular weights are rejected more efficiently than those with lower molecular weights.
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Polarity of Solutes: Non-polar solutes typically show lower rejection rates. For example, benzene, despite its relatively high molecular weight, has a rejection rate of only about 25% due to its non-polar structure.
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State of Solutes: Gaseous solutes are not rejected by reverse osmosis membranes. For instance, ammonia gas (NH₃) is not rejected, while ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) in low-pH solutions can be effectively retained.
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Degree of Branching: Highly branched molecules exhibit higher rejection rates. For example, isopropanol has a higher rejection rate than n-propanol.
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Other Factors: Additional influences include feed water conditions (e.g., pH, ionic strength, hardness) and membrane properties (e.g., surface charge characterized by zeta potential, hydrophilicity, and surface morphology).
The rejection performance of practical reverse osmosis membranes, especially nanofiltration membranes, depends on a combination of the above factors rather than any single variable. For more accurate data, product manuals and lab-scale simulation tests provide only preliminary reference information. We recommend users conduct pilot tests under actual field conditions to validate performance.
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